# Transmission electron microscopy (TEM): how it works, HRTEM, SAED and STEM-HAADF

> How TEM works: bright field, HRTEM lattice images, SAED diffraction, STEM-HAADF Z-contrast, EDS/EELS, sample thickness and beam damage of MOFs.

URL: https://www.labcanvas.com/techniques/tem

Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) sends a beam of high-energy electrons through a sample thinner than about 100 nm and forms images and diffraction patterns from the electrons that pass through (Bijelić et al. 2023). High-resolution TEM resolves crystal lattices and defects at atomic scale, electron diffraction gives crystal structure, and in scanning mode (STEM) the high-angle annular dark-field signal scales roughly with the square of atomic number, so heavy atoms appear bright (Bijelić et al. 2023; Zheng et al. 2023). Beam-sensitive materials such as MOFs need low-dose or cryogenic conditions (Zheng et al. 2023).

Characterisation techniques Published 27 October 2026 Last updated 27 October 2026 8 references

![TEM: Atomic-scale images and diffraction from thin samples (HAADF intensity ∝ Z²)](https://www.labcanvas.com/materials/tem/tem-cover.webp)

**Contents**

**Contents**

- Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) at a glance
- Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) instrument drawing (high-resolution SVG)
- Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) data: an example plot to edit
- How TEM works
- What the data looks like and how to read it
- Sample preparation
- What TEM tells you about materials
- Common mistakes and limits
- How to draw the TEM setup and data in LabCanvas
- TEM compared with STEM, SEM and AFM
- Related techniques
- More on LabCanvas
- Frequently asked questions
- References

## Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) at a glance

| Probe | High-energy electron beam transmitted through the sample: parallel beam in TEM, focused rastered probe in STEM (Bijelić et al. 2023) |
| --- | --- |
| Signals measured | Transmitted and scattered electrons (images, diffraction); X-rays (EDS) and energy losses (EELS) (Bijelić et al. 2023) |
| Main information | Particle size and shape, crystal phase, defects, atomic structure and local composition (Bijelić et al. 2023) |
| Typical sample | Electron transparent, below about 100 nm thick (Bijelić et al. 2023) |
| Resolution | Sub-nanometre; HAADF-STEM reaches sub-ångström Z-contrast imaging (Joo et al. 2025; Sohlberg et al. 2015) |
| HAADF-STEM contrast | Incoherent high-angle scattering, intensity roughly proportional to Z²; light elements are hard to see (Bijelić et al. 2023; Zheng et al. 2023) |
| SAED | Aperture selects a micrometre-scale area; lattice parameters to about 2% (Bijelić et al. 2023) |
| EDS vs EELS | EDS ~120 eV energy resolution, suited to heavier elements; EELS ~0.7 eV (0.2 eV monochromated), suited to lighter elements and needs thinner samples (Bijelić et al. 2023) |
| MOF dose tolerance (300 kV) | MIL-101(Cr) ~16 e⁻ Å⁻²; UiO-66(Zr) damage onset 10–20 e⁻ Å⁻²; ZIF-8(Zn) ~25 e⁻ Å⁻² (Zheng et al. 2023) |
| Beam damage mechanisms | Radiolysis, knock-on displacement and beam heating; radiolysis dominates in MOFs (Zheng et al. 2023) |
| Environment | High vacuum (Joo et al. 2025) |

## Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) instrument drawing (high-resolution SVG)

![Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) instrument drawn as a LabCanvas Library object](https://www.labcanvas.com/materials/tem/tem-drawing.webp)

A transmission electron microscope as a LabCanvas Library instrument: the tall electron-optical column and an image on screen. Change colours, labels and view in the figure editor.

[Edit the drawing in LabCanvas](https://www.labcanvas.com/editor.html?add=ch-tem)[Download SVG](https://www.labcanvas.com/materials/tem/tem-drawing.svg)[Download PNG (3000 px)](https://www.labcanvas.com/materials/tem/tem-drawing.png)

## Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) data: an example plot to edit

![Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) data plot drawn as a LabCanvas Library object](https://www.labcanvas.com/materials/tem/tem-plot.webp)

A high-resolution TEM image panel as an editable LabCanvas drawing, with lattice fringes and a scale bar. Edit the data, labels and colours in the figure editor.

[Edit the plot in LabCanvas](https://www.labcanvas.com/editor.html?add=gr-tem)[Download SVG](https://www.labcanvas.com/materials/tem/tem-plot.svg)[Download PNG (3000 px)](https://www.labcanvas.com/materials/tem/tem-plot.png)

## How TEM works

In a TEM, electrons pass **through** the sample, so it must be electron transparent, roughly below 100 nm thick (Bijelić et al. 2023). Two operating modes share most instruments:

- **TEM mode (parallel beam).** The whole field is illuminated at once. **High-resolution TEM (HRTEM)** uses coherent, elastically scattered electrons to image the crystal lattice, often at atomic resolution, revealing particle size, shape, crystal phase and defects (Bijelić et al. 2023).
- **STEM mode (focused probe).** A fine probe is scanned over the sample. The bright-field detector collects Bragg-scattered electrons; the annular dark-field detector collects electrons scattered incoherently to high angles, whose intensity is roughly proportional to the square of the atomic number, giving **Z-contrast** (HAADF) images (Bijelić et al. 2023; Zheng et al. 2023). With aberration correction HAADF-STEM reaches sub-ångström resolution (Sohlberg et al. 2015).

The same instrument records **electron diffraction** patterns. In **selected area electron diffraction (SAED)** an aperture picks a micrometre-scale region; nanobeam diffraction uses a nanometre-sized beam instead (Bijelić et al. 2023). Because the STEM probe is localised, it also drives spatially resolved **EDS** and **EELS** maps (Bijelić et al. 2023).

## What the data looks like and how to read it

- **Bright-field / low-magnification images:** particle outlines for size distributions. Count many non-overlapping particles from several regions, and check the mean against XRD (Bijelić et al. 2023).
- **HRTEM images:** periodic lattice fringes. Measure spacings directly between atomic columns, or index the image’s fast Fourier transform (FFT), to identify phases and map strain (Bijelić et al. 2023). HRTEM contrast reverses with defocus, so a bright spot is not automatically an atom; a defocus series or simulation is needed for interpretation (Zheng et al. 2023).
- **SAED patterns:** spot positions relative to the central beam give lattice spacings, accurate to about 2%: good enough to tell phases apart, not for fine strain (Bijelić et al. 2023). Diffraction can even distinguish single-layer from multilayer [MoS₂](https://www.labcanvas.com/2d-materials/mos2) (Brivio et al. 2011).
- **HAADF-STEM images:** bright = heavy. Line profiles across a particle reveal hollow or core–shell structures; combined with EDS or EELS maps they show where each element is (Bijelić et al. 2023).

## Sample preparation

- **Thickness.** Aim for below about 100 nm; for EELS, ideally no thicker than the inelastic mean free path, about 50–100 nm for most metals (Bijelić et al. 2023).
- **Cross-sections of bulk samples and devices** are cut and thinned with a focused ion beam in a dual-beam SEM (House et al. 2022).
- **Beam-sensitive samples** (MOFs, COFs, organics) need a low-dose plan: find the damage threshold by watching the diffraction pattern fade, then image below it, ideally with a direct-detection camera and at cryogenic temperature (Zheng et al. 2023).
- **Insulators** charge under the beam, causing drift and blur (Zheng et al. 2023).

## What TEM tells you about materials

- **MOFs:** low-dose HRTEM with direct-detection cameras has resolved the surfaces of [ZIF-8](https://www.labcanvas.com/mof/zif-8) at 2.1 Å with only about 4.1 e⁻ Å⁻², and missing-linker and missing-cluster defects in [UiO-66](https://www.labcanvas.com/mof/uio-66); cryo-HRTEM imaged the lattice of [MOF-5](https://www.labcanvas.com/mof/mof-5) nanocrystals, and HRTEM located metal nanoparticle guests in MOF-5 and [HKUST-1](https://www.labcanvas.com/mof/hkust-1) (Zheng et al. 2023).
- **COFs** such as [COF-5](https://www.labcanvas.com/cof/cof-5) suffer the same catastrophic damage from high-energy electrons as MOFs and need the same low-dose approach (Zhan et al. 2024).
- **Zeolites:** aberration-corrected STEM with low-dose strategies images metal and organic guest species inside [zeolite](https://www.labcanvas.com/zeolites) frameworks in real space (Yu et al. 2025).
- **2D materials:** suspended monolayer [MoS₂](https://www.labcanvas.com/2d-materials/mos2) is crystalline but rippled by up to 1 nm, as in [graphene](https://www.labcanvas.com/2d-materials/graphene) (Brivio et al. 2011).
- **Catalyst nanoparticles:** size, facets, strain, alloying and degradation, tracked particle by particle (Bijelić et al. 2023).

TEM complements [SEM](https://www.labcanvas.com/techniques/sem) (surface morphology), [XRD](https://www.labcanvas.com/techniques/xrd) (bulk phase, averaged over the sample) and [AFM](https://www.labcanvas.com/techniques/afm) (true height). See all methods on the [characterisation techniques](https://www.labcanvas.com/techniques) hub.

## Common mistakes and limits

- **Beam damage mistaken for structure.** MOFs lose crystallinity after only tens of electrons per Ų at 300 kV (MIL-101(Cr) ~16, UiO-66(Zr) 10–20, ZIF-8(Zn) ~25 e⁻ Å⁻²) by radiolysis, knock-on and heating (Zheng et al. 2023).
- **Over-interpreting HRTEM contrast.** Contrast changes with defocus and thickness; simulate before assigning atoms (Zheng et al. 2023).
- **Forgetting light elements in HAADF.** Elements of low atomic number scatter weakly to high angles and are hard to image; integrated differential phase contrast (iDPC) STEM shows light and heavy atoms together (Zheng et al. 2023).
- **2D projections.** A TEM image is a projection of a 3D object; tomography at several tilt angles is needed for true 3D shape (Bijelić et al. 2023).
- **Poor statistics.** TEM sees a tiny fraction of the sample; support conclusions with bulk techniques such as XRD and [XPS](https://www.labcanvas.com/techniques/xps) (Bijelić et al. 2023).
- **Drift in STEM.** Scan distortions and specimen drift affect atomic-resolution STEM more than HRTEM (Bijelić et al. 2023).

## How to draw the TEM setup and data in LabCanvas

A clear TEM methods figure shows the column (gun, condenser lenses, sample, objective lens, detectors or camera) next to a bright-field image, an HRTEM image with its FFT, a SAED pattern and, for STEM, a HAADF image with EDS maps. In LabCanvas the figure editor Library has the TEM as an editable object, including a cutaway of the electron beam path, and an editable data plot for line profiles or EDS spectra. You can label lattice spacings and diffraction rings or peaks, add scale bars and export the figure for a methods section or a graphical abstract.

## TEM compared with STEM, SEM and AFM

| Technique | What it measures | Sample | Resolution | Sample damage | Source |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| TEM (HRTEM, SAED) | Nanostructure, atomic and crystal structure | Electron transparent, below ~100 nm | Sub-nanometre | Profound | Joo et al. 2025; Bijelić et al. 2023 |
| STEM (HAADF, EDS, EELS) | Atomic structure, Z-contrast, atomic-scale composition | Electron transparent | Sub-nanometre | Moderate | Joo et al. 2025 |
| SEM | Surface morphology; composition with EDS | Bulk solids, coated if insulating | Nanometre scale | Moderate | Joo et al. 2025 |
| AFM | Surface topography and nanoscale properties | Flat surfaces, air or liquid | Sub-nanometre (vertical) | Subtle | Joo et al. 2025 |

## Related techniques

[![SEM: Electron images of surfaces, plus EDS elemental maps (Surface morphology and composition)](https://www.labcanvas.com/materials/sem/sem-cover.webp) Technique Surface morphology and composition Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) How SEM works: secondary vs backscattered electron images, EDS/EDX elemental analysis, resolution, sample coating, low-vacuum mode and common mistakes.](https://www.labcanvas.com/techniques/sem)

[![XRD: Crystal structure, phase and crystallite size (nλ = 2d sin θ)](https://www.labcanvas.com/materials/xrd/xrd-cover.webp) Technique nλ = 2d sin θ X-ray diffraction (XRD) X-ray diffraction explained: Bragg’s law, how to read an XRD pattern, phase identification, Scherrer crystallite size, Rietveld refinement and common mistakes.](https://www.labcanvas.com/techniques/xrd)

[![AFM: A sharp tip maps surfaces in 3D, in air or liquid (Height, phase and nanoscale forces)](https://www.labcanvas.com/materials/afm/afm-cover.webp) Technique Height, phase and nanoscale forces Atomic force microscopy (AFM) How AFM works: tip, cantilever and laser deflection, contact vs tapping mode, measuring 2D flake thickness from height profiles, and common AFM artefacts.](https://www.labcanvas.com/techniques/afm)

[![XPS: Surface elements and chemical states, top ~10 nm (BE = hν − KE)](https://www.labcanvas.com/materials/xps/xps-cover.webp) Technique BE = hν − KE X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) XPS explained: binding energy, 2–10 nm surface sensitivity, survey vs high-resolution spectra, chemical shifts, C 1s charge referencing and depth profiling.](https://www.labcanvas.com/techniques/xps)

## More on LabCanvas

- [All characterisation techniques](https://www.labcanvas.com/techniques): XRD, XPS, BET, SEM, TEM, NMR, FTIR, Raman and more, explained with cited sources
- [Graphical abstract sizes and templates](https://www.labcanvas.com/graphical-abstracts): ACS, Wiley, Angewandte, RSC, Elsevier and Cell Press, with templates at the right size
- [Materials explained](https://www.labcanvas.com/blog/materials): MOFs, COFs, 2D materials, perovskites, batteries and zeolites, with cited facts
- [Journal figure size guide](https://www.labcanvas.com/blog/journal-figure-size-guide): Column widths and resolutions for 38 journals

## Frequently asked questions

### What is TEM used for?

TEM images the internal structure of thin samples at sub-nanometre resolution, giving particle size and shape, crystal phase, defects and, with EDS or EELS, local composition (Bijelić et al. 2023).

### How thin must a TEM sample be?

It must be electron transparent, roughly below 100 nm thick; EELS ideally needs a thickness no greater than the inelastic mean free path, about 50–100 nm for most metals (Bijelić et al. 2023).

### What is HRTEM?

High-resolution TEM uses a parallel beam and coherent, elastically scattered electrons to image crystal lattices, often at atomic resolution; because its contrast reverses with defocus, images must be interpreted with care (Bijelić et al. 2023; Zheng et al. 2023).

### What is SAED in TEM?

Selected area electron diffraction uses an aperture to record a diffraction pattern from a micrometre-scale region; spot positions give lattice spacings to about 2%, enough to identify phases (Bijelić et al. 2023).

### What is HAADF-STEM Z-contrast?

In STEM, a high-angle annular dark-field detector collects incoherently scattered electrons whose intensity is roughly proportional to Z², so heavier atoms appear brighter and light elements are hard to see (Bijelić et al. 2023; Zheng et al. 2023).

### TEM vs SEM: what is the difference?

TEM transmits electrons through a sample below about 100 nm thick and resolves internal and atomic structure; SEM scans the surface of bulk samples and gives morphology at nanometre resolution (Bijelić et al. 2023; Joo et al. 2025).

### Why do MOFs get damaged in TEM?

Their organic linkers and metal–linker bonds break under the electron beam, mainly by radiolysis, so crystallinity is lost after roughly 10–25 e⁻ Å⁻² at 300 kV for UiO-66, MIL-101 and ZIF-8; low-dose and cryo-TEM reduce the damage (Zheng et al. 2023).

### EDS vs EELS in TEM: which should I use?

EDS (~120 eV resolution) is simpler and better for heavier elements; EELS (~0.7 eV, or 0.2 eV monochromated) is better for light elements and chemical state but needs thinner samples (Bijelić et al. 2023).

## References

- L. Bijelić, F. Ruiz-Zepeda, N. Hodnik. The role of high-resolution transmission electron microscopy and aberration corrected scanning transmission electron microscopy in unraveling the structure–property relationships of Pt-based fuel cells electrocatalysts. *Inorg. Chem. Front.* 2023, 11, 323–341. [doi:10.1039/d3qi01998e](https://doi.org/10.1039/d3qi01998e)
- A. Zheng, K. Yin, R. Pan, M. Zhu, Y. Xiong, L. Sun. Research progress on metal-organic frameworks by advanced transmission electron microscopy. *Nanomaterials* 2023, 13, 1742. [doi:10.3390/nano13111742](https://doi.org/10.3390/nano13111742)
- K. Sohlberg, T. J. Pennycook, W. Zhou, S. J. Pennycook. Insights into the physical chemistry of materials from advances in HAADF-STEM. *Phys. Chem. Chem. Phys.* 2015, 17, 3982–4006. [doi:10.1039/c4cp04232h](https://doi.org/10.1039/c4cp04232h)
- J. Brivio, D. T. L. Alexander, A. Kis. Ripples and layers in ultrathin MoS₂ membranes. *Nano Lett.* 2011, 11, 5148–5153. [doi:10.1021/nl2022288](https://doi.org/10.1021/nl2022288)
- Z. Yu, H. Lin, H. Zhang, Y. Han. Exploring guest species in zeolites using transmission electron microscopy: a review and outlook. *Chem. Soc. Rev.* 2025, 54, 4763–4789. [doi:10.1039/d5cs00159e](https://doi.org/10.1039/d5cs00159e)
- Z. Zhan, Y. Liu, W. Wang, G. Du, S. Cai, P. Wang. Atomic-level imaging of beam-sensitive COFs and MOFs by low-dose electron microscopy. *Nanoscale Horiz.* 2024, 9, 900–933. [doi:10.1039/d3nh00494e](https://doi.org/10.1039/d3nh00494e)
- K. L. House, L. Pan, D. M. O’Carroll, S. Xu. Applications of scanning electron microscopy and focused ion beam milling in dental research. *Eur. J. Oral Sci.* 2022, 130, e12853. [doi:10.1111/eos.12853](https://doi.org/10.1111/eos.12853)
- S. Joo et al.. Atomic force microscopy for cross-disciplinary materials research. *Small Methods* 2025, 9, e2500514. [doi:10.1002/smtd.202500514](https://doi.org/10.1002/smtd.202500514)

## Draw Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) figures for your paper

LabCanvas is a browser workspace for scientific figures: instruments with their beam and light paths, editable data plots, crystal structures, graphs and graphical abstracts at journal sizes.

[Draw Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) in LabCanvas](https://www.labcanvas.com/editor.html?add=ch-tem)

**Contents**

- Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) at a glance
- Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) instrument drawing (high-resolution SVG)
- Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) data: an example plot to edit
- How TEM works
- What the data looks like and how to read it
- Sample preparation
- What TEM tells you about materials
- Common mistakes and limits
- How to draw the TEM setup and data in LabCanvas
- TEM compared with STEM, SEM and AFM
- Related techniques
- More on LabCanvas
- Frequently asked questions
- References