# The graphite anode: staging and the SEI

> Graphite stores lithium between its graphene layers, filling them in stages, every fourth, third, second and finally every gallery as LiC₆, which opens the layers by about 10%. Graphite works in carbonate electrolytes only because the electrolyte decomposes on the first charge into a thin solid electrolyte interphase (SEI) that lets lithium ions through but stops electrons. The lithium locked in the SEI is lost from the cell.

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- Updated: 2026-10-14
- Category: Battery materials
- Method: Intercalation anode
- Starting materials: Natural or synthetic graphite on copper foil, in a carbonate electrolyte with a lithium salt
- Product: Lithiated graphite up to LiC₆, covered by an SEI
- Key result: Interlayer spacing and capacity computed from the graphite and LiC₆ cells; voltage curves schematic
- Figure: 1920 × 1080 px, 72 editable layers (6 generated objects with settings)

## Steps

1. **Graphite**: AB-stacked graphene layers 3.35 Å apart
2. **Staging**: Dilute stage 1, then stages 4, 3, 2L, 2 and finally stage 1 as lithium increases (Dahn 1991)
3. **LiC₆**: Every gallery filled; the layers stack AA and open to 3.70 Å; 372 mAh g⁻¹ (computed)
4. **SEI**: On the first charge the electrolyte is reduced into a film that conducts Li⁺ but not electrons (Peled 1979)

## Strengths

- Low, flat potential near 0.1 V vs Li
- Small volume change (about 10%)
- Cheap and long-lived

## Limitations

- Lithium lost to the SEI on the first cycle
- Lithium plating if charged too fast or too cold

## Uses

- The negative electrode of almost every lithium-ion cell

## References

1. Dahn, “Phase diagram of LixC6”, Phys. Rev. B 1991. https://doi.org/10.1103/PhysRevB.44.9170 (primary)
2. Peled, “The Electrochemical Behavior of Alkali and Alkaline Earth Metals in Nonaqueous Battery Systems—The Solid Electrolyte Interphase Model”, J. Electrochem. Soc. 1979. https://doi.org/10.1149/1.2128859 (primary)
3. Ohzuku, Iwakoshi & Sawai, “Formation of Lithium-Graphite Intercalation Compounds in Nonaqueous Electrolytes and Their Application as a Negative Electrode for a Lithium Ion (Shuttlecock) Cell”, J. Electrochem. Soc. 1993. https://doi.org/10.1149/1.2220849 (primary)
4. Xu, “Nonaqueous Liquid Electrolytes for Lithium-Based Rechargeable Batteries”, Chem. Rev. 2004. https://doi.org/10.1021/cr030203g (review)

Credit: After Dahn, Phys. Rev. B 1991 (doi:10.1103/PhysRevB.44.9170) and Peled, J. Electrochem. Soc. 1979 (doi:10.1149/1.2128859). Crystals from their structures; staging and SEI schematic; voltage curves schematic.

## Questions

**What does the “The graphite anode: staging and the SEI” template show?** Graphite stores lithium between its graphene layers, filling them in stages, every fourth, third, second and finally every gallery as LiC₆, which opens the layers by about 10%. Graphite works in carbonate electrolytes only because the electrolyte decomposes on the first charge into a thin solid electrolyte interphase (SEI) that lets lithium ions through but stops electrons. The lithium locked in the SEI is lost from the cell.

**What are the steps shown in “The graphite anode: staging and the SEI”?** 1. Graphite: AB-stacked graphene layers 3.35 Å apart. 2. Staging: Dilute stage 1, then stages 4, 3, 2L, 2 and finally stage 1 as lithium increases (Dahn 1991). 3. LiC₆: Every gallery filled; the layers stack AA and open to 3.70 Å; 372 mAh g⁻¹ (computed). 4. SEI: On the first charge the electrolyte is reduced into a film that conducts Li⁺ but not electrons (Peled 1979).

**What are the starting materials and the product?** Starting materials: Natural or synthetic graphite on copper foil, in a carbonate electrolyte with a lithium salt. Product: Lithiated graphite up to LiC₆, covered by an SEI.

**Which papers is “The graphite anode: staging and the SEI” based on?** Dahn, “Phase diagram of LixC6”, Phys. Rev. B 1991 (doi:10.1103/PhysRevB.44.9170); Peled, “The Electrochemical Behavior of Alkali and Alkaline Earth Metals in Nonaqueous Battery Systems—The Solid Electrolyte Interphase Model”, J. Electrochem. Soc. 1979 (doi:10.1149/1.2128859); Ohzuku, Iwakoshi & Sawai, “Formation of Lithium-Graphite Intercalation Compounds in Nonaqueous Electrolytes and Their Application as a Negative Electrode for a Lithium Ion (Shuttlecock) Cell”, J. Electrochem. Soc. 1993 (doi:10.1149/1.2220849); Xu, “Nonaqueous Liquid Electrolytes for Lithium-Based Rechargeable Batteries”, Chem. Rev. 2004 (doi:10.1021/cr030203g).

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