# LiMn₂O₄: the spinel cathode

> Manganese spinel is cheap and fast: MnO₆ octahedra form a three-dimensional framework, and lithium in tetrahedral sites can move in all three directions. Lithium comes out in two steps near 4 V. Push more lithium in, though, and Mn³⁺ appears; its Jahn–Teller distortion stretches the octahedra and the cubic crystal turns tetragonal, and Mn³⁺ can dissolve into the electrolyte, the spinel’s weak points.

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- Updated: 2026-10-14
- Category: Battery materials
- Method: Spinel cathode
- Starting materials: Lithium and manganese oxides or salts, heated in air
- Product: Cubic spinel LiMn₂O₄ (Fd-3m, a = 8.245 Å)
- Key result: Pattern computed from the structure: (111) near 18.6°, (311) near 36.1°, (400) near 43.9° (Cu Kα)
- Figure: 1920 × 1080 px, 66 editable layers (3 generated objects with settings)

## Steps

1. **Structure**: MnO₆ octahedra (16d) share edges into a 3D framework; lithium sits in tetrahedral 8a sites
2. **3D paths**: Lithium hops 8a → 16c → 8a in all directions
3. **Near 4 V**: One lithium per formula comes out in two steps: 148 mAh g⁻¹ (computed from the formula)
4. **Near 3 V**: Extra lithium makes Mn³⁺; the Jahn–Teller effect stretches its octahedra and the cell turns tetragonal

## Strengths

- Manganese: cheap, abundant, low toxicity
- 3D lithium paths: high rate
- No cobalt

## Limitations

- Mn³⁺ disproportionates and dissolves, worse when hot
- Jahn–Teller distortion if over-lithiated
- Lower capacity than layered oxides

## Uses

- Power tools
- Blended cathodes for electric vehicles

## References

1. Thackeray, David, Bruce & Goodenough, “Lithium insertion into manganese spinels”, Mater. Res. Bull. 1983. https://doi.org/10.1016/0025-5408(83)90138-1 (primary)
2. Whittingham, “Lithium Batteries and Cathode Materials”, Chem. Rev. 2004. https://doi.org/10.1021/cr020731c (review)
3. Goodenough & Park, “The Li-Ion Rechargeable Battery: A Perspective”, J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2013. https://doi.org/10.1021/ja3091438 (review)

Credit: After Thackeray et al., Mater. Res. Bull. 1983 (doi:10.1016/0025-5408(83)90138-1) and the review of Whittingham, Chem. Rev. 2004 (doi:10.1021/cr020731c). Structure from refined positions; pattern computed; voltage curve schematic.

## Questions

**What does the “LiMn₂O₄: the spinel cathode” template show?** Manganese spinel is cheap and fast: MnO₆ octahedra form a three-dimensional framework, and lithium in tetrahedral sites can move in all three directions. Lithium comes out in two steps near 4 V. Push more lithium in, though, and Mn³⁺ appears; its Jahn–Teller distortion stretches the octahedra and the cubic crystal turns tetragonal, and Mn³⁺ can dissolve into the electrolyte, the spinel’s weak points.

**What are the steps shown in “LiMn₂O₄: the spinel cathode”?** 1. Structure: MnO₆ octahedra (16d) share edges into a 3D framework; lithium sits in tetrahedral 8a sites. 2. 3D paths: Lithium hops 8a → 16c → 8a in all directions. 3. Near 4 V: One lithium per formula comes out in two steps: 148 mAh g⁻¹ (computed from the formula). 4. Near 3 V: Extra lithium makes Mn³⁺; the Jahn–Teller effect stretches its octahedra and the cell turns tetragonal.

**What are the starting materials and the product?** Starting materials: Lithium and manganese oxides or salts, heated in air. Product: Cubic spinel LiMn₂O₄ (Fd-3m, a = 8.245 Å).

**Which papers is “LiMn₂O₄: the spinel cathode” based on?** Thackeray, David, Bruce & Goodenough, “Lithium insertion into manganese spinels”, Mater. Res. Bull. 1983 (doi:10.1016/0025-5408(83)90138-1); Whittingham, “Lithium Batteries and Cathode Materials”, Chem. Rev. 2004 (doi:10.1021/cr020731c); Goodenough & Park, “The Li-Ion Rechargeable Battery: A Perspective”, J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2013 (doi:10.1021/ja3091438).

**Can I edit the “LiMn₂O₄: the spinel cathode” template?** Yes. Open it in the LabCanvas editor: all 66 layers are editable, including 3 generated objects (structures, plots, equipment) with their own settings. Change the text, colours and layout, then export PNG, TIFF, SVG or PDF.

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