# How a lithium-ion battery works

> A lithium-ion battery stores energy by moving lithium ions between two host materials. Charging drives Li⁺ out of layered LiCoO₂, through the electrolyte and into graphite while electrons go round the outside circuit; on discharge both flow back and power the load. The electrolyte only survives between its LUMO and HOMO, and graphite sits above that window, so a thin passivating layer (the SEI) has to form for the cell to work.

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- Updated: 2026-10-14
- Category: Battery materials
- Method: Rocking-chair cell
- Starting materials: Graphite on copper foil (negative), LiCoO₂ on aluminium foil (positive), a porous separator, LiPF₆ in carbonate solvents
- Product: A cell that stores and returns energy as lithium ions move between the two hosts
- Key result: Theoretical capacities from the formulas: LiC₆ 372 mAh g⁻¹; LiCoO₂ 274 mAh g⁻¹ if all its lithium left, about half of which is used in practice
- Figure: 1920 × 1080 px, 79 editable layers (4 generated objects with settings)

## Steps

1. **Charge**: A power supply drives Li⁺ out of LiCoO₂ into graphite; electrons take the outside circuit
2. **Discharge**: Li⁺ goes back into the layered oxide while electrons flow through the load
3. **Two hosts**: Lithium sits between graphene layers (LiC₆) or between CoO₂ slabs; neither host is consumed
4. **Electrolyte window**: The electrolyte is stable between its LUMO and HOMO; graphite lies above the LUMO, so a passivating SEI forms (Goodenough & Park 2013)

## Strengths

- Light, high-voltage chemistry
- The same ions shuttle back and forth: hundreds of cycles or more

## Limitations

- The SEI consumes lithium on the first charge
- Organic electrolytes are flammable

## Uses

- Phones and laptops
- Electric vehicles
- Grid storage

## References

1. Goodenough & Park, “The Li-Ion Rechargeable Battery: A Perspective”, J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2013. https://doi.org/10.1021/ja3091438 (review)
2. Armand & Tarascon, “Building better batteries”, Nature 2008. https://doi.org/10.1038/451652a (review)
3. Mizushima, Jones, Wiseman & Goodenough, “LixCoO2 (0<x≤1): A new cathode material for batteries of high energy density”, Mater. Res. Bull. 1980. https://doi.org/10.1016/0025-5408(80)90012-4 (primary)
4. Whittingham, “Lithium Batteries and Cathode Materials”, Chem. Rev. 2004. https://doi.org/10.1021/cr020731c (review)
5. Xu, “Nonaqueous Liquid Electrolytes for Lithium-Based Rechargeable Batteries”, Chem. Rev. 2004. https://doi.org/10.1021/cr030203g (further reading)

Credit: After Goodenough & Park, JACS 2013 (doi:10.1021/ja3091438) and Armand & Tarascon, Nature 2008 (doi:10.1038/451652a). Cells schematic; crystals from their structures; capacities computed from the formulas.

## Questions

**What does the “How a lithium-ion battery works” template show?** A lithium-ion battery stores energy by moving lithium ions between two host materials. Charging drives Li⁺ out of layered LiCoO₂, through the electrolyte and into graphite while electrons go round the outside circuit; on discharge both flow back and power the load. The electrolyte only survives between its LUMO and HOMO, and graphite sits above that window, so a thin passivating layer (the SEI) has to form for the cell to work.

**What are the steps shown in “How a lithium-ion battery works”?** 1. Charge: A power supply drives Li⁺ out of LiCoO₂ into graphite; electrons take the outside circuit. 2. Discharge: Li⁺ goes back into the layered oxide while electrons flow through the load. 3. Two hosts: Lithium sits between graphene layers (LiC₆) or between CoO₂ slabs; neither host is consumed. 4. Electrolyte window: The electrolyte is stable between its LUMO and HOMO; graphite lies above the LUMO, so a passivating SEI forms (Goodenough & Park 2013).

**What are the starting materials and the product?** Starting materials: Graphite on copper foil (negative), LiCoO₂ on aluminium foil (positive), a porous separator, LiPF₆ in carbonate solvents. Product: A cell that stores and returns energy as lithium ions move between the two hosts.

**Which papers is “How a lithium-ion battery works” based on?** Goodenough & Park, “The Li-Ion Rechargeable Battery: A Perspective”, J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2013 (doi:10.1021/ja3091438); Armand & Tarascon, “Building better batteries”, Nature 2008 (doi:10.1038/451652a); Mizushima, Jones, Wiseman & Goodenough, “LixCoO2 (0<x≤1): A new cathode material for batteries of high energy density”, Mater. Res. Bull. 1980 (doi:10.1016/0025-5408(80)90012-4); Whittingham, “Lithium Batteries and Cathode Materials”, Chem. Rev. 2004 (doi:10.1021/cr020731c); Xu, “Nonaqueous Liquid Electrolytes for Lithium-Based Rechargeable Batteries”, Chem. Rev. 2004 (doi:10.1021/cr030203g).

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