Fibre-reinforced composites: from layup to strength

A split-screen graphical abstract: on one side a brittle epoxy matrix that cracks, on the other stiff carbon fibres that carry the load. An exploded quasi-isotropic laminate, plies at 0°, 45°, 90° and −45°, spans the divide, and a strip along the bottom shows how laminates fail: fibre breakage, matrix cracking, delamination and kinking.

1. The matrix alone: Cured epoxy is brittle with low elongation; cracks start at free surfaces and spread to fracture (Farooq et al. 2020). 2. Stack the plies: Unidirectional plies at 0°, +45°, 90° and −45°, mirrored about the mid-plane: an eight-ply quasi-isotropic layup (Gupta & Rajagopal 2018). 3. Fibres carry the load: The fibres are the main load-carrying member (Khan et al. 2023); the resin binds them, protects them and passes load between them (Scaffaro et al. 2021; Kennedy et al. 2024). 4. Uses: Wind-turbine blades, aircraft, cars and sporting goods (Swolfs 2017; Scaffaro et al. 2021; Elgnemi et al. 2021). 5. How they fail: Fibre breakage, matrix cracking and delamination under tension (Amevorku et al. 2025); microbuckling and kinking under compression (Swolfs 2017).

Starting materials: Carbon or glass fibres and an epoxy resin (unidirectional prepreg plies). Product: A quasi-isotropic laminate [0/45/90/−45]s whose fibres carry the load.

Scaffaro, Di Bartolo & Dintcheva, “Matrix and Filler Recycling of Carbon and Glass Fiber-Reinforced Polymer Composites: A Review”, Polymers 2021 (doi:10.3390/polym13213817); Amevorku, Amoateng-Mensah, Rijal & Sundaresan, “Classification and Clustering of Fiber Break Events in Thermoset CFRP Using Acoustic Emission and Machine Learning”, Sensors 2025 (doi:10.3390/s25206466); Swolfs, “Perspective for Fibre-Hybrid Composites in Wind Energy Applications”, Materials 2017 (doi:10.3390/ma10111281); Farooq, Teuwen & Dransfeld, “Toughening of Epoxy Systems with Interpenetrating Polymer Network (IPN): A Review”, Polymers 2020 (doi:10.3390/polym12091908); Wijewickrama, Jeewantha, Perera, Alajarmeh & Epaarachchi, “Fiber-Reinforced Composites Used in the Manufacture of Marine Decks: A Review”, Polymers 2025 (doi:10.3390/polym17172345); Kennedy, Jeen Robert, Malkiya Rasalin Prince, Hikku & Kaliraj, “A comprehensive overview of the fabrication and testing methods of FRP composite pipes”, MethodsX 2024 (doi:10.1016/j.mex.2024.102990); Gupta & Rajagopal, “Effect of ply orientation and through-thickness position of delamination on the reflection of fundamental symmetric S0 Lamb mode in GFRP composite plate structures”, Ultrasonics 2018 (doi:10.1016/j.ultras.2018.06.007); Khan, Junaedi, Alshahrani, Wagih, Lubineau & Sebaey, “Enhanced Open-Hole Strength and Toughness of Sandwich Carbon-Kevlar Woven Composite Laminates”, Polymers 2023 (doi:10.3390/polym15102276); Elgnemi, Jun, Songmene & Samuel, “Milling Performance of CFRP Composite and Atomised Vegetable Oil as a Function of Fiber Orientation”, Materials 2021 (doi:10.3390/ma14082062).

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